Conflicts of the Orders Patrician and Plebeian

Conflicts of the Orders Patrician and Plebeian After the expulsion of the kings, Rome was ruled by its aristocrats (roughly, the patricians) who abused their privileges. This led to a struggle between the people (plebeians) and the aristocrats that is called the Conflict of the Orders. The term orders refers to the patrician and plebeian groups of Roman citizens. To help resolve the conflict between the orders, the patrician order gave up most of their privileges, but retained vestigial and religious ones, by the time of the lex Hortensia, in 287- a law was named for a plebeian dictator. This article looks at events leading to the laws referred to as the 12 Tablets, codified in 449 B.C. After Rome Expelled Their Kings After the Romans expelled their last king, Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud), the monarchy was abolished in Rome. In its place, the Romans developed a new system, with 2 annually-elected magistrates called consuls, who served throughout the period of the republic, with two exceptions: when there was a dictator (or military tribune with consular powers) orwhen there was a decemvirate (about which, more on next page). Different Opinions on the Monarchy - Patrician and Plebeian Perspectives Magistrates, judges, and priests of the new republic mostly came from the patrician order, or upper class*. Unlike the patricians, the lower or plebeian class may have suffered under the early republican structure more than they had under the monarchy, since they now had, in effect, many rulers. Under the monarchy, they had endured just one. A similar situation in ancient Greece sometimes led the lower classes to welcome tyrants. In Athens, the political movement against a hydra-headed governing body led to the codification of laws and then democracy. The Roman path was different. In addition to the many-headed hydra breathing down their necks, the plebeians lost access to what had been regal domain and was now the public land or ager publicus, because the patricians who were in power, took control of it to increase their profits, running it by slaves or clients in the country while they and their families lived in the city. According to a descriptive, old-fashioned, 19th century history book written by the H.D. Liddell of Alice in Wonderland and Greek Lexicon fame, A History of Rome From the Earliest Times to the Establishment of the Empire, the plebeians were mostly not so well off petty yeomen on small farms who had needed the land, now public, to satisfy their families basic needs. During the first few centuries of the Roman republic, the number of chafing plebeians increased. This was partly because the plebeians population numbers increased naturally and partly because neighboring Latin tribes, granted citizenship by treaty with Rome, were enrolled in the Roman tribes. Gaius Terentilius Harsa was a tribune of the plebs that year. Thinking that the absence of the consuls afforded a good opportunity for tribunitian agitation, he spent several days in haranguing the plebeians on the overbearing arrogance of the patricians. In particular he inveighed against the authority of the consuls as excessive and intolerable in a free commonwealth, for whilst in name it was less invidious, in reality it was almost more harsh and oppressive than that of the kings had been, for now, he said, they had two masters instead of one, with uncontrolled, unlimited powers, who, with nothing to curb their licence, directed all the threats and penalties of the laws against the plebeians.Livy 3.9 The plebeians were oppressed by hunger, poverty, and powerlessness. Allotments of land didnt solve the problems of poor farmers whose tiny plots stopped producing when overworked. Some plebeians whose land had been sacked by the Gauls couldnt afford to rebuild, so they were forced to borrow. Interest rates were exorbitant, but since land couldnt be used for security, farmers in need of loans had to enter into contracts (nexa), pledging personal service. Farmers who defaulted (addicti), could be sold into slavery or even killed. Grain shortages led to famine, which repeatedly (among other years: 496, 492, 486, 477, 476, 456 and 453 B.C.) compounded the problems of the poor. Some patricians were making a profit and gaining slaves, even if the people to whom they lent money defaulted. But Rome was more than just the patricians. It was becoming the main power in Italy and would soon become the dominant Mediterranean power. What it needed was a fighting force. Referring back to the similarity with Greece mentioned earlier, Greece had needed its fighters, too, and made concessions to the lower classes in order to get bodies. Since there werent enough patricians in Rome to do all the fighting the young Roman Republic engaged in with its neighbors, the patricians soon realized they needed strong, healthy, young plebeian bodies to defend Rome. *Cornell, in Ch. 10 of The Beginnings of Rome, points out problems with this traditional picture of the makeup of early Republican Rome. Among other problems, some of the early consuls appear not to have been patricians. Their names appear later in history as plebeians. Cornell also questions whether or not patricians as a class existed prior to the republic and suggests that although the germs of the patriciate were there under the kings, the aristocrats consciously formed a group and closed their privileged ranks sometime after 507 B.C. In the first few decades following the expulsion of the last king, the plebeians (roughly, the Roman lower class) had to create ways of dealing with problems caused or exacerbated by the patricians (the ruling, upper class): poverty,occasional famine, andlack of political clout. Their solution to at least the 3rd problem was to set up their own separate, plebeian assemblies, and secede. Since the patricians needed the physical bodies of the plebeians as fighting men, the  plebeian secession  was a serious problem. The patricians had to yield to some of the plebeian demands. Lex Sacrata  and  Lex Publilia Lex  is the Latin for law;  leges  is the plural of  lex. It is thought that between laws passed in 494, the  lex sacrata, and 471, the  lex publilia, the patricians granted the plebeians the following concessions. the right to elect their own officers by tribeto recognize officially the plebeians sacrosanct magistrates, the tribunes. Among the soon to be acquired powers of the tribune was the important  right to veto. Codified Law After inclusion in the ranks of the ruling class via the office of tribune and the vote, the next step was for the plebeians to demand codified law. Without a written law, individual magistrates could interpret tradition however they wished. This resulted in unfair and seemingly arbitrary decisions. The plebeians insisted that this custom end. If laws were written down, magistrates could no longer be so arbitrary. There is a tradition that in 454 B.C. three commissioners went to Greece* to study its written legal documents. In 451, upon the return of the commission of three to Rome, a group of 10 men was established to write down the laws. These 10, all patricians according to the ancient tradition (although one appears to have had a plebeian name), were the  Decemviri  [decem10; virimen]. They replaced the years consuls and tribunes and were given additional powers. One of these extra powers was that the  Decemviris decisions could not be appealed. The 10 men wrote down laws on 10 tablets. At the end of their term, the first 10 men were replaced by another group of 10 in order to finish the task. This time, half the members may have been plebeian. Cicero, writing some 3 centuries later, refers to the 2 new tablets, created by the second set of  Decemviri  (Decemvirs), as unjust laws. Not only were their laws unjust, but the Decemvirs who wouldnt step down from office began to abuse their power. Although failure to step down at the end of the year had always been a possibility with the consuls and dictators, it hadnt happened. Appius Claudius One man, in particular, Appius Claudius, who had served on both decemvirates, acted despotically. Appius Claudius was from an originally Sabine family that continued to make its name known throughout Roman history. The blind censor,  Appius Claudius, was one of his descendants. In 279 Appius Claudius Caecus (blind) expanded the lists from which soldiers could be drawn so as to include those without property. Before then soldiers had to have a certain level of property in order to enlist.Clodius Pulcher  (92-52 B.C.) the flamboyant tribune whose gang caused trouble for Cicero, was another descendant.Appius Claudius was also a member of the gens that produced the Claudians in the Julio-Claudian dynasty of Roman emperors. This early despotic Appius Claudius pursued and brought a fraudulent legal decision against a free woman, Verginia, daughter of a high ranking soldier, Lucius Verginius. As a result of Appius Claudius lustful, self-serving actions, the plebeians seceded again. To restore order, the Decemvirs finally abdicated, as they should have done earlier. The laws the  Decemviri  created were meant to resolve the same basic problem that had faced Athens when  Draco  (whose name is the basis for the word draconian because his laws and punishments were so severe) was asked to codify Athenian laws. In Athens, before Draco, interpretation of the unwritten law had been done by the nobility who had been partial and unfair. Written law meant everyone was theoretically held to the same standard. However, even if exactly the same standard were applied to everyone, which is always a wish more than a reality, and even if the laws were written, a single standard doesnt guarantee reasonable laws. In the case of the 12 tablets, one of the laws prohibited marriage between plebeians and patricians. Its worth noting that this discriminating law was on the supplemental two tablets those written while there were plebeians among the Decemvirs, so it is not true that all plebeians opposed it. Military Tribune The 12 tablets  were an important move in the direction of what we would call equal rights for the plebeians, but there was still much to do. The law against intermarriage between the classes was repealed in 445. When the plebeians proposed that they should be eligible for the highest office, the consulship, the Senate wouldnt completely oblige, but instead created what we might call a separate, but equal new office known as  military tribune with consular power. This office effectively meant plebeians could wield the same power as the patricians. Secession [secessio]: Withdrawal or the threat of withdrawal from the Roman state during times of crisis. Why Greece? We know of Athens as the birthplace of democracy, but there was more to Romans decision to study the Athenian legal system than this, especially since there is no reason to think the Romans were trying to create an Athenian-like democracy.Athens, too, once had an underclass suffering at the hands of the nobles. One of the first steps taken was to commission Draco to write down the laws. After Draco, who recommended capital punishment for crime, continued problems between rich and poor led to the appointment of Solon the law-giver.Solon and the Rise of Democracy In  The Beginnings of Rome, its author, T. J. Cornell, gives examples of English translations of what was on the 12 Tables. (The tablet placement of the injunctions follows H. Dirksen.) Whoever shall have been lacking witness, he is to go every other day to clamor (?) at the door (II.3)They are to make a road. Unless they laid it with stones, he is to drive carts where he shall wish (VII.7)If the weapon flew from [his] hand rather than [he] threw it (VIII.24)Table III says that a debtor who cannot  repay within a set period can be sold into slavery, but only abroad and across the Tiber (i.e. not in Rome, since Roman citizens could not be sold into slavery in Rome). As Cornell says, the code is hardly what we would think of as a code, but a list of injunctions and prohibitions. There are specific areas of concern: family, marriage, divorce, inheritance, property, assault, debt, debt-bondage (nexum), freeing of slaves, summonses, funeral behavior, and more. This hodge-podge of laws does not seem to clarify the position of plebeians but instead seems to address questions in areas in which there was disagreement. It is the 11th Table, one of the ones written by the plebeian-patrician group of Decemvirs, that lists the injunction against plebeian-patrician marriage. Sources Scullard, H. H.  A History of the Roman World, 753 to 146 BC. Routledge, 2008.

Albrecht von Wallenstein in the Thirty Years War

Albrecht von Wallenstein in the Thirty Years War Born at Heà ¸manice, Bohemia on September 24, 1583, Albrecht von Wallenstein was the son of a minor noble family. Initially raised as a Protestant by his parents, he was sent to a Jesuit school in Olmà ¼tz by his uncle after their death. While at Olmà ¼tz he professed to convert to Catholicism, though he subsequently attended the Lutheran University of Altdorf in 1599. Following additional schooling at Bologna and Padua, von Wallenstein joined the army of Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II. Fighting against the Ottomans and Hungarian rebels, he was commended for his service at the siege of Gran. Rise to Power: Returning home to Bohemia, he married the wealthy widow Lucretia Nikossie von Landeck. Inheriting her fortune and estates in Moravia upon her death in 1614, von Wallenstein used it buy influence. After splendidly fitting out a company of 200 cavalries, he presented it to Archduke Ferdinand of Styria for use in fighting the Venetians. In 1617, von Wallenstein married Isabella Katharina. The couple had two children, though only one, a daughter, survived infancy. With the outbreak of the Thirty Years War in 1618, von Wallenstein declared his support for the Imperial cause. Forced to flee his lands in Moravia, he brought the provinces treasury to Vienna. Equipping a regiment of cuirassiers, von Wallenstein joined the army of Karel Bonaventura Buquoy and saw service against the Protestant armies of Ernst von Mansfeld and Gabriel Bethlen. Winning notice as a brilliant commander, von Wallenstein was able to recover his lands after the Catholic victory at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620. He also benefited from the favoritism of Ferdinand who had ascended to post of Holy Roman Emperor in 1619. The Emperors Commander: Through the emperor, von Wallenstein was able to acquire the large estates that had belonged to his mothers family as well as purchased huge tracts of confiscated land. Adding these to his holdings, he reorganized the territory and named it Friedland. In addition, military successes brought titles with the emperor making him an imperial count palatine in 1622, and a prince a year later. With the entry of the Danes into the conflict, Ferdinand found himself without an army under his control to oppose them.  While the army of the Catholic League was in the field, it belonged to Maximilian of Bavaria. Seizing the opportunity, von Wallenstein approached the emperor in 1625 and offered to raise an entire army on his behalf. Elevated to Duke of Friedland, von Wallenstein initially assembled a force of 30,000 men. On April 25, 1626, von Wallenstein and his new army defeated a force under Mansfield at the Battle of Dessau Bridge. Operating in conjunction with the Count of Tillys Catholic League Army, von Wallenstein campaigned against Mansfeld and Bethlan. In 1627, his army swept through Silesia clearing it of Protestant forces. In the wake of this victory, he purchased the Duchy of Sagan from the emperor. The next year, von Wallensteins army moved into Mecklenburg in support of Tillys efforts against the Danes. Named Duke of Mecklenburg for his services, von Wallenstein was frustrated when his siege of Stralsund failed, denying him access to the Baltic and the ability to confront Sweden and the Netherlands at sea. He was further distressed when Ferdinand announced the Edict of Restitution in 1629. This called for the return of several principalities to Imperial control and the conversion of their inhabitants to Catholicism. Though von Wallenstein personally opposed the edict, he began moving his 134,000-man army to enforce it, angering many of the German princes. This was hampered by the intervention of Sweden and the arrival of its army under the gifted leadership of King Gustavus Adolphus. In 1630, Ferdinand called a meeting of the electors at Regensburg with the goal of having his son voted as his successor. Angered by von Wallensteins arrogance and actions, the princes, led by Maximilian, demanded the commanders removal in exchange for their votes. Ferdinand agreed and riders were sent to inform von Wallenstein of his fate. Return to Power: Turning his army over to Tilly, he retired to Jitschin in Friedland. While he lived on his estates, the war went badly for the emperor as the Swedes crushed Tilly at the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631. The following April, Tilly was defeated at killed at Rain. With the Swedes in Munich and occupying Bohemia, Ferdinand recalled von Wallenstein. Returning to duty, he swiftly raised a new army and cleared the Saxons from Bohemia. After defeating the Swedes at Alte Veste, he encountered Gustavus Adolphus army at Là ¼tzen in November 1632. In the battle that ensued, von Wallensteins army was defeated but Gustavus Adolphus was killed. Much to the emperors dismay, von Wallenstein did not exploit the kings death but rather retreated into winter quarters. When the campaign season began in 1633, von Wallenstein mystified his superiors by avoiding confrontations with the Protestants. This was largely due to his anger over the Edict of Restitution and his beginning secret negotiations with Saxony, Sweden, Brandenburg, and France to end the war. While little is known regarding the talks, he claimed to be seeking a just peace for a unified Germany. Downfall: While von Wallenstein worked to stay loyal to the emperor, it is clear that he was seeking to aggrandize his own power. As the talks flagged, he sought to reassert his power by finally going on the offensive. Attacking the Swedes and Saxons, he won his final victory at Steinau in October 1633. After von Wallenstein moved to winter quarters around Pilsen, news of the secret talks reached the emperor in Vienna. Moving quickly, Ferdinand had a secret court find him guilty of treason and signed a patent removing from command on January 24, 1634. This was followed by an open patent charging him with treason which was published in Prague on February 23. Realizing the danger, von Wallenstein rode from Pilsen to Eger with the goal of meeting with the Swedes. Two nights after arriving, a plot was put into motion to eliminate the general. Scots and Irish dragoons from von Wallensteins army seized and killed many of his senior officers, while a small force, led by Walter Devereux, killed the general in his bedroom. Selected Sources Albrecht von WallensteinNNDB: Albrecht von WallensteinThirty Years War

Advertising and society Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Advertising and society - Research Paper Example This essay "Advertising and Society" describes the history of the ad and how the advertising industry works. Advertisement started among the ancient Babylonian Empire and from there the rest was history. â€Å"The first evidence of advertising was found among the ancient Babylonian Empire and dates back to the 3000s BC.† Therefore advertisement has systematically worked its way up the ladder of human consciousness and taken many years to attain the status it has today –that of a potentially influential medium (Hayko, 2010). Many psychologists and scholars believe that advertising has affected our society in shocking ways. For years they have studied the mental and emotional affects it can trigger in individuals and in turn the society at large. The ways in which advertising affects our society have been both negative and positive and have been fundamental to the advertising industry. The advertisement industry lives to sell itself. This is the main focal point of the entire hubbub in the media and the cashing of various products and ads. Without this primary and hunter-like objective, the advertisement industry would not be able to gain as much profit as it does now through deception and mockery. Through this instinct for survival and the ‘subliminally stimulated patterns the advertisement industry has adopted in order to ensnare more and more customers to buy their products. In order to understand the workings of advertising, we need to discuss the pros and cons of the advertisement industry in o rder to see how they mirror our society.

Foreign Investment in Farmland Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Foreign Investment in Farmland - Essay Example The interrelated problems of over-industrialization, decades of poor land use policies, a rising population, scarcity of resources like water, and the skyrocketing prices of food have made governments in the developed parts of the world realise that they cannot feed their peoples with oil and asphalt, and therefore should seek out alternatives. Experts agree that something big is taking place and that there are risks involved to small-holder farmers. These fears revolved mainly but not exclusively around the themes of food insecurity and peasant dispossession. The disagreement is how to read the issue and what solutions are necessary in order to address the dangers. For organizations such as the World Bank, these are birth pains of a new but promising phenomenon, and whatever risks are taking place can be solved by corporate responsibility and efficient governance of land. This means making sure that there is no corruption, that small-holder farmers get to see the contracts to lease their land, that farmers are given titles so that they can transact freely and equally. The World Bank’s opinion on this matter is laid down in its recent publication, Rising Global Interest in Farmland: Can It Yield Sustainable and Equitable Benefits by the World Bank (2010). For another group of experts, however, the phenomenon is something that must be resisted and that it indicates a new form of colonialism. They think that because the corporation wanting to take lands from the developing world are only after profit, it will result in farmers being displaced and dispossessed, and no more lands in the developing world to produce food. The World Bank report, dotted with case studies demonstrating the difficulties of rural peoples as a result of the rising phenomenon of transnational corporations and rich countries taking over their lands, states that the risks attaching to land grabbing actually â€Å"correspond to equally large opportunities† (page xxi) as long as a ccess to technology, capital markets, infrastructure and information are granted. It contends that foreign investments have the potential to make positive contributions to rural livelihood and can support small-holder farmers.. It is supported by experts such as Liversage, who contends that â€Å"mutually beneficial partnerships between small-holder farmers and private sector investors† (2010: 2) give benefits to both. On the other hand, critics of land grabbing have also stated their case. We turn to an article entitled From Threat to Opportunity: Problems with the Idea of a â€Å"Code of Conduct† for Land Grabbing by Saturnino Borras and Jennifer Franco (2010: 1). Borras and Franco argue that global land grabbing is a threat in and of itself, and the institutionalization of corporate responsibility mechanisms only serves to legitimize existing capitalist interests at the expense of the rural poor in the global south. They make the call for a human rights-framed, cate gorically pro-poor land policy framework that questions current production and consumption patterns. This is similar to the Accumulation by Dispossession that David Harvey (2006: 112) speaks of – â€Å"the perpetual search for natural resources of high quality that can be pillaged for surplus and surplus value production has therefore been a key aspct to the historical geography of capitalism.†

Publius Virgilius Maro Essay Example for Free

Publius Virgilius Maro Essay Aside from Christianity there is no other force that shaped Western civilization other than the Greco-Roman culture. And there is no better representation of that period in history other than Rome and Publius Viirgilius Maro, also known as Virgil. A closer examination of Virgil and his works made many to realize that Virgil was a byproduct of events and it is the twin forces of the Roman Empire and Greek history that prompted Virgil to write. This paper will look into the two factors that influenced the writing of Publius Virgilius Maro. This can be done by looking first at the events that transpired before Virgil began writing and this means tracing back Greek and Roman history. The second way of knowing the connection between history and Virgils writings is to dig into his works and of course this means analyzing the Aeneid. It will be shown later that it is Roman history and Homer that shaped Virgil to become the writer that he was destined to be. Rome After more than two thousand years the world is still mesmerized by Rome. It is because of its legacy, it military prowess, and form of government. Rome was without equal when it comes to how it help shape Western history. Yet in the early days of Roman history there is not much to see. There is nothing that could make an outsider ascertain its potential to be a dominant ruler of known world in antiquity. Ting Morris traced its early development in obscurity and he remarked, â€Å"Rome began around 2,800 years ago as a few small settlements on wooded hills overlooking the Tiber River† (4). But then Rome began to distance itself from the Latin communities from which it was supposed to be a part of. What happens next began a series of development that will catapult this small community into the world map, â€Å"†¦the roman Republic conquered first Latium, then all of Italy. The Romans annexed much foreign territory to their own state, but they also established a system of alliances with all other states. This gave the Romans a vast reserve of manpower that allowed them to overthrow every major power in the Mediterranean†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Mackay, 40). A new age has come and a new military superpower was born. But when the Romans began to assimilate remnants of Alexanders Empire, the new European power came face to face with an ancient civilization whose insight into religion, politics, and philosophy was far ahead of its time. In short the Romans, â€Å" recognized something in Greek culture that was more impressive than anything Rome itself achieved, in spite of Romes unprecedented military success† (Cox). At this point Rome was all brute force. Yes the soldiers led by the Caesars were brave, strong and are very eager to make their mark in the battlefield but when it comes to culture, the Romans were barbarians compared to the Greeks. The Romans discovered an effective methodology in fighting wars and they even had the distinct advantage of knowing how to build an empire out of disparate tribes and nations. They were experts in campaigns that require traveling far from home and yet they lack one more thing. They did not have a good system that can be put in place after victory. This is similar to the idea that it is easy to start a war but the more difficult thing to do is how to end it. So when Rome began to feel the success of empire building the more that they felt the need for a way of life that will enhance their reputation in Europe while at the same time offer them an opportunity to enjoy life more. They found the answer from the sophisticated Greeks. Virgil The Romans had to learn from the Greeks and their history can be characterized not only by empire building but also by the why they incorporated Greek thought and the Greek’s way of life into their own unique system. Now there is none better who understood the need for assimilating Greek culture than the Roman intellectuals of that time. In fact, â€Å"Among the adaptors of Greek culture, none was more brilliant than the poet Virgil. He faced a formidable challenge. Everyone who encountered Greek culture recognized how much it was shaped by Homer† (Cox). This means that there is a great need to surpass Homer and if this is not possible then at least equal Homer’s genius. If this can be achieved then the Romans had done something which other Greek imitators failed to do and that is to provide a great explanation for their existence. A myth has to be created, a legend has to be made and the purpose for such an endeavor is obvious. There is a need for something that will hold the empire together. At the time of writing the Aeneid, Rome was again in the cusp of revolution. Julius Caesar was defeated by Augustus Caesar and so steps must be made to consolidate his power and to strengthen the arm of the new emperor. For a brilliant man like Virgil, times like this one is an opportunity that must be grabbed by both hands. Virgil proceeded to hit two birds with one stone. First he would write an epic that will explain the origins of Rome. He will do so by using stories that are already familiar among the people that he wants to see united under Augustus Caesar and during that time there was no other story quite like the one weaved by Homer centuries before. Virgil saw that epic struggle for good and evil; battles between heroes; and the self-sacrificial behavior of some heroes simply because they believe in something higher than themselves proved to be a formula hard to resist. Virgil was ready to accept the challenge. But it is clear from the beginning that it would not be an easy task. Aside from that Homer is a world unto itself. And as they say there is no way one can improve on perfection, the Iliad and the Odyssey are the blueprints for creating great epics and so what else can be done to make it better. Virgil was able to solve this problem by being inventive and by starting where Homer ended his story. When Troy fell, one of her sons went on to build another kingdom. But then again Virgil cannot escape the past. Virgil could not resist using a successful formula. As they say there is no need to fix what was broken. Judging from the power of the Iliad and the Odyssey to move people it is almost impossible not to use the same method and technique of telling a great story. And so Virgil copied many ideas from Homer. In the introduction to the Aeneid Levi Robert pointed out that: Virgil borrowed from Homer a great many items: his verse form, the division into twelve books, mythology, many episodes and similes. In the Aeneid Venus doubles for Nausicaa, Dido for Calypso and Circe, and Drances for Thersites. The funeral games the desecent into Hades, where Aeneas meets Dido as Odysseus met Ajax, the prophecy of Anchises, the catalogue of ships, Turnus attempt to burn them, a broken truce †¦ a quarrel of two Italian leaders †¦ and a final single combat (Robert, xiii). Aeneid The Aeneid is basically the story of Aeneas, the god-like leader of a band of Trojan refugees fleeing to Italy after the fall of Troy. In the beginning, Aeneas built a fleet with the goal in mind of settling in a foreign land and to finally establish a new nation of Trojans. In Virgil’s mind, he wanted the world to understand the basis for the establishment of the Roman Empire. And there is nothing as perfect as that. Hornstein, Percy and Brown’s book, The Reader’s Companion to World Literature, was very helpful in understanding the context from which Virgils Aeneid was written, and they said that it was written at a time of conflict. Italy was ravaged by more than fifty years of revolution and civil war. When the long-sought peace came, a new form of government was fashioned from a battle weary nation. And with the new set-up, ultimate power was in the hands of one man- Augustus Caesar. It was during this time that the Roman Virgil began working on the Aeneid. Hornstein, Brown and Percy wrote: Vergil began the poem in 29 B. C. , two years after the battle of Actium brought this period of civil war to an end. He had long been preparing for the task. His purpose was national: he desired to glorify the Roman people by his theme and exalt the Emperor in the person of his hero. (5) Homer Putnam acknowledge that Virgil is under the towering shadow of Homer when he made this judgment, â€Å"Homer himself, against whose essential insights into humanity, Virgil’s own achievement will always be measured. † Homer’s success allowed him to set the standard upon which others who will come after him will be forced to measure up. Allen Mandelbaum tells of how his previous study prevented him from fully appreciating Virgil’s works and he said, â€Å"One was a tag line of mark Van Doren that echoed through my youth with tenacious resonance: ‘Homer is a world; Virgil, a style’. † It also did not help that the critics saw Virgil as copying Homer, Gaskell said, â€Å"The overall plan of Virgil’s epic was plainly Homeric, with its main elements reversed: now the odyssey of the man comes first and the armed fighting follows it: but the Homeric parallels are many and obvious. † (161). The only major difference was that Homer was illiterate and therefore had to express the beauty of his poetry in oral reform. On the other hand Virgil was literate and he could study Homers Iliad and Odyssey in written form as well as compose his own epic and was able to write it down. This explains the difference in style but all the more strengthens the view that Virgil was strongly influenced by Homer. Conclusion Now the pieces of the puzzle begin to fall down into its proper places and one can now see the bigger picture. It was mentioned earlier that it was in 168 BC when the Romans began to conquer the remnants of Alexanders Empire and it is through the conquest of former Greek states that the Romans saw first hand the beauty that was Greece. In short the highly militaristic Romans lacked the cultural refinements that one can find in abundance in Greek societies. It is through the process of incorporating Greek culture into the Romans way of life that they rediscovered the power of Homeric poetry. It took the genius of Virgil to use Homers works and use it as the foundation for his own epic. And so in 29 BC Virgil began writing the Aeneid with the purpose of emulating what Homer has achieved in Greece. Homers Iliad and Odyssey provided a sense of identity for all Greeks and Virgil was hoping to achieve the same results. But the desire to incorporate Greek life into Roman life is easier said than done. But everyone who will try to copy from someone begins by copying almost everything that one can see and the eye can appreciate. For instance the Romans copied the design of their temples and they also described their gods using the same attributes found in Greek society. But there is no need to worry because the Roman changed the Greek sounding names of their gods into Roman names for their statues. Virgil attempted to accomplish two major things when he wrote the Aeneid. He wanted to impress the new emperor (Augustus Caesar) and secondly he wanted to have a unique Roman epic that will help unite the people. Virgil was successful in achieving both. The hero of the Aeneid was behaving in much the same way as Augustus Caesar especially with regards to his conquest and the subsequent creation of a new nation out of that sheer determination to succeed. Now for the second part, Virgil was also able to create an epic that can be comparable to Homer. It is true that he copied many things from Homer and yet at the same time his stories were never simply a rehash of what Homer did. Virgil simply needed an inspiration to get going and he found it in the character of Aeneas whom Homer briefly mentioned in his work. From this little known character, Aeneid began to build a story that made the peoples pulse to race. It was indeed an epic story of battles, of struggle between good and evil, of heroes who most of the time failed to achieve their potential and sometimes die a tragic death. The Aeneid is basically an explanation as to the existence of Rome. For many there is a need to have that kind of idea, that kind of emotional anchor in times of trouble. And there is no way to fully understand the impact of Aeneid towards the people of Rome. But one thing is sure Virgil’s work was able to unite the whole of the empire and is instrumental as to why the empire endured for so long. It is now very clear that that Virgil was influenced by historical events and the circumstances that surrounded his life. If there were two streams where these influences came from then Homer is a mighty source of inspiration while the politics and warfare in ancient Rome provided Virgil with more materials to use. In Rome’s struggle to carve out a nation in Europe was evident in Aeneid where the hero had to travel and faced with numerous risks just so he can establish a new nation. It was Homer who provided much influence for Virgil. If Homer did not produce the Iliad and Odyssey it is hard to imagine Virgil able to make his own. This is not to take away anything form the accomplishments of Virgil but it would be almost impossible for him to write beautifully without Homer as guide. Homer did not only provide the seed from which Virgil will grow a powerful story, Homer also provided the correct format. And so putting it all together it is now very clear that Virgil was a byproduct of the events that surrounded him. Yet even before he was born, Homer’s influence and genius was already felt in many parts of the Western world. When Virgil was still very young it is easy to imagine that he was already familiar with the Iliad and Odyssey and no doubt the stories found in those epics help to shape the way he thinks. Works Cited Appelbaum, Stanley. Ed. â€Å"The Aeneid by Vergil† Trans. Charles J. Billson. Canada: Dover Publications, 1995. Cox, John. Introduction to Virgil, The Aeneid. 2008. General Education at Hope College. 03 April 2008. http://www. hope. edu/academic/ids/171/Aeneid. html Gaskell, Philip. Ed. â€Å"Landmarks in Classical Literature† Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1999. Hemminger, Bill. Exploring Ancient World Cultures: Rome. 1997. EAWC at University of Evansville. 02 April 2008. http://eawc. evansville. edu/ropage. htm Hornstein, L. H. , G. D. Percy, and Calvin S. Brown. Eds. â€Å"The Reader’s Companion to World Literature† New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc. , 1973. Knight, G. R. Wilson. Trans. â€Å"The Aeneid by Virgil† New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc. , 1956. Mackay, Christopher. â€Å"Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. † New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Mandelbaum, Allen. Trans. â€Å"The Aeneid by Virgil† California: University of California Press, 1971. Morford, Mark P. O. and Robert J. Lenardon. â€Å"Classical Mythology† 7th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. Morris, Ting. â€Å"Ancient Rome. † MN: Smart Apple Media, 2007.

Pipilotti Rist and Virtual Utopia Essay -- Art

Within new media, there exists the desire and possibility to produce new effects upon the viewer, to grant new experiences. Pipilotti Rist seeks the creation of virtual utopias within the limitations of the video medium in installations such as her recent work at the Museum of Modern Art, Pour Your Body Out (7354 Cubic Meters) in 2009. The work transforms the typically bare atrium of the Museum of Modern Art into an active environment, where a reciprocal relationship between the viewer and the projection can take place. Communication between viewers also forms an essential component in the work; discourse becomes the mediator in the spectator’s relationship to the imagery. The formal characteristics of the work are crucial in their produced effect upon the audience. It is a four panel screen landscape, whose size of 7354 cubic meters is made referent in the title. Despite its monumental size, the work does not function as an oppressive weapon but rather a positive force, one that is able to free us from our inhibitions. Rist frequently experiments with the various ways in which video can be projected onto surfaces. Though she does not push the technical boundaries of the video medium medium, she nonetheless pushes the limits within video projection. Requiring seven different projectors to be linked seamlessly, her work is a technical achievement for this feat alone. A large circular couch occupies the center of the exhibition space. Its shape is meant to be reminiscent of the human iris, but also bring to mind the iris of the camera as well. The camera is presented as a living eye in her work, capable of bending and twisting, contorting reality in its own light. It is at the same time a sensuous device, one that exp... ...eing an artwork. Works Cited Bickers, Patricia. Caressing SPACE. Art Monthly no. 350 (October 2011): 1-4. Art Full Text (H.W. Wilson), EBSCOhost (accessed May 28, 2012). Harris, Jane. "Psychedelic, baby: an interview with Pipilotti Rist." Art Journal 59, no. 4 (December 15, 2000): 68-79. Art Full Text (H.W. Wilson), EBSCOhost (accessed May 28, 2012). Hayden, Malin Hedlin. "Pipilotti Rist. Gravity, Be My Friend." Konsthistorisk Tidskrift 77, no. 3 (January 2, 2008): 200-207. Art Full Text (H.W. Wilson), EBSCOhost (accessed May 28, 2012). Iles, Chrissie. You are a Queen: The Selfless Spaces of Pipilotti Rist. Pipilotti Rist:Eyeball Massage. Edited by Stephanie Rosenthal. London, UK: Hayward Publishing, 2011. Rosenthal, Stephanie. Be My Friend!. Pipilotti Rist:Eyeball Massage. Edited by Stephanie Rosenthal. London, UK: Hayward Publishing, 2011.

Baptist Confessional Paper

When comparing one item to the other there will always be differences and similarities this is the essitanial aspect of comparing. For purposes of this paper, the two Anabaptist confessions, which will be looked at, are as follows. The New Hampshire Baptist Confession and the Free- Will Baptist Confession. The Basis of the New Hampshire Confession rests on the Calvinistic view of theology verses the Free-Will Baptist whose foundation is rooted in the Armenian aspects of theology. The very core of the differences between these two confessions lies in the positions of Armenian and Calvin theology, which will be the focus of this paper. An added difference, which warrants a little time is the stance the Free Will, took from the New Hampshire on the view of Ordinances of the church. Wrapping up will focus on how doctrinal differences between the two will affect the movements in their spheres of influence. Doctrine on God The focus of theology starts with a look at God, who He is and how He responds to those He has created. The view of God a person chooses will direct the flow of the flow of the person's theology. This being said the discussion would start with God. The New Hampshire Baptist (NHB) believed that God knew all things and therefore new exactly what would happen even before it happened because He determined it that way. The NHB looked at God as having complete and utter sovereignty over all creation. It is under this notion the NHB believed that God knew those who would chose to become His elect from the sinful nature of humanity. The NHB looked at this as an outpouring of God to all that would choose to live for Him. The NHB looked at this as God's â€Å"eternal purpose. One of the areas this confession does not mention is why God chooses one over another. God election is solely based upon His goodness and holiness, that He would be glorified according to His nature. God places His glory above all things in so much He commands there will be no other God before Him. On the other hand, the Free-Will Baptist (FWB) believes God does not preordain people to be called to Him. FWB believes God only ordains the ends, not the middle, or the means. The FWB believes God gives humankind a sort of power. This power would be considered free will. Free will or the power to choose and therefore determine what things may come by the hand of man. The FWB believe God governs by† moral law and motives† men were thought of as having the ability to bring about the ends He desired. FWB could not understand how a man could be responsible for his action if he does not have the freedom to create possibilities of his own choosing. FWB attempts to break down the concept of the NHB and the idea of God having foreknowledge of all things verses His foreordination of all things. The FWB believes that all things are with God from the beginning to the end. The FWB believe God's knowledge of the events does not cause them to happen, the FWB also believe that not all the things God knows will happen. FWB knows that God is omniscience but they deny His foreordination of all things such as the HHB does. The FWB have an understanding to which makes God in some very dependent of the creature or creation. They also have an issue with God's foreknowledge and His foreordination and could not break apart the bond between them. Although both needed to define God's omnipotence. God knows what will happen and what will cause thing to happen, therefore while He knows some of the happenings, He also knows what will be needed should we need a way out. FWB focuses on God's willingness to act on certain things or react and allow history to unfold as it would. The Nature of Man The NHC confession of Faith believes the fall of man from a state of joy and communion with God is due to the free will of man. Due to this fall, humanity is separated from God and therefore doomed to an eternal death without excuse because of its own choice. This idea follows along with Calvinism's doctrine of Total Depravity. Although the NHC falls along the lines of Calvinism there are quite a few aspects of the doctrine they did not follow such as man's spiritual deadness, black minds dark hearts, and shackles to sin, as well as man's incapability to change. On the other hand, the FWB builds their faith upon the presupposition that God gives every man free will. FWB believe that although this free will caused men to fall that by the same free will men can choose to change their present state by Christ. The FWB anthropology is closely linked within their outlook on Christology, with its focus on Atonement of Jesus. Atonement The NHB hold strongly to the foundation of â€Å"full atonement. † The NHB believe that atone was a two part concept which involved a universal and a limited area. The universal part took the stance that Christ atonement was sufficient for the salvation all humankind. The limited area was efficient for only the elect of God. NHB held that Christ knew whom He was giving His life for, and these few were by far and large secure in their salvation. The FWB held a special place in the confession of faith when speaking of salvation. The idea can be summed up in the following words â€Å"The call of the Gospel is co-extensive with the atonement to all me, birth by word and the striving of the Spirit, so that salvation is rendered equally possible to all; and if any fail of eternal life, the fault is wholly his own†. The FWB held to the belief men would be changed to a point where they would be able to choose for themselves salvation. When Christ gave His life this supplied the salvation to those that would believe, but the atonement would not be applied to this salvation. The only way the application of Christ's atonement would be placed on a man once he believed in Christ as Lord and savior then through the Spirit the atonement would apply to this person. The Influence of the Holy Spirit NHB hold fast to the belief that God's grace begins the regeneration process through the workings of the Holy Spirit within the person. The gift is given freely to those who choose a relationship with God. God decrees in order for many people to hear the word of God and thus hear of salvation to all that would accept this call by the Holy Spirit. The NHB also adhere to the fact that those who will continue to reject the promoting of the Spirit upon their hearts would not be forced to live for God. One of the doctrines of the HNB would follow that God does not care to follow people in this way. FWB have an outlook such that to say God loves those of His elect different than those outside His elect would strike up an argument. The FWB believe God's atonement is equal for all people and therefore His calling upon the hearts of man are equal. God would place people in places where they are faced with the decision to call upon Him for atonement but the actual turning away from self and acceptance of atonement is men alone. God cannot choose the right decision or the wrong decision in the doctrine of the FWB. Perseverance of the Saints The NHB like any other denomination will follow its doctrines to their logical conclusions. Believing is â€Å"wrought in our souls† because of the regenerating Spirit of God's work within His elect is â€Å"wholly of grace† then the preservation of those elect in a state of salvation is entirely based on the power of God. If God wants, you saved then you will be saved. On the other hand, the FWB hold fast to their doctrine to which if the act of believing comes from a man's few will then his choice to remain in the salvation state is also from his free will. A blurb from their doctrine defines it clearly† future obedience and final salvation are neither determined nor certain, since through infirmity and manifold temptation they are in danger of falling. † The Sacraments The NHB state in their confession there are only two ordinances they hold to. The first being the Baptism and the second being the Lord's Supper. However, the FWB also holds the Lord's Supper and the Baptism of its members but adds a third, which is washing the feet of the Saints. Conclusion In conclusion of the findings between these two different groups is very clear. The doctrines to which govern these groups are first and for most deep-rooted, and secondly quite different. It would be interesting at the very least to see a debate between these groups. It is quite clear the Free Will Baptist doctrine focus is centered on the man. The man makes up his own mind, the man continues to follow his own decision or not. This idea of man focused is can be seen not only in Christianity but also in new age and many other religions worldwide. While on the other hand the focus of the New Hampshire Baptist is solely, focus on God. Their entire doctrine is focused on a position of humility, peace, love, and joy from the man towards his creator. Though both have their many differences, the bottom line is both were different from the norm of their time and were hunted because they sought many differences from the power of the state-church at that time.

Demand and Supply for Money

DEMAND AND SUPPLY FOR MONEY – MACROECONOMICS REPORT DEMAND FOR MONEY * What is Demand for Money? The demand for money represents the desire of households and businesses to hold assets in a form that can be easily exchanged for goods and services. Spendability, or liquidity, is the key aspect of money that distinguishes it from other types of assets. For this reason, the demand for money is sometimes called the demand for liquidity. * Many factors influence our total demand for money balances. The four main factors are 1. the level of prices 2. the level of interest rates . the level of real national output (real GDP) 4. the pace of financial innovation * Three Reasons or Motives for a Large Demand of Money Economists have identified three primary motives for holding money: †¢ To settle transactions, since money is the medium of exchange. †¢ As a precautionary store of liquidity, in the event of unexpected need. †¢ To reduce the riskiness of a portfolio of assets by including some money in the portfolio, since the value of money is very stable compared with that of stocks, bonds, or real estate. * Transaction Motives Money is an essential element in order to have a purchasing power. * This is money used for the purchase of goods and services. The transactions demand for money is positively related to real incomes and inflation. As an individual's income rises or as prices in the shops increase, he will have to hold more cash to carry out his everyday transactions. The quantity of nominal money demand is therefore proportional to the price level in the economy. * The  transactions motive  for demanding money arises from the fact that most transactions involve an exchange of money.Because it is necessary to have money available for transactions, money will be demanded. The total number of transactions made in an economy tends to increase over time as income rises. Hence, as income or GDP rises, the  transactions demand  for money also rises. * The transactions motive for money demand results from the need for liquidity for day-to-day transactions in the near future. This need arises when income is received only occasionally (say once per month) in discrete amounts but expenditures occur continuously. Example: Households and firms hold money or demand money in order to conduct regular payments of goods and services they purchase from the market. * The households and firms hold money to pay for daily expenses such as food, clothing, transportation, and rentals. * In other words, people hold money for transactions purposes – hence the motive is for transaction. * Precautionary Motive * This is money held to cover unexpected  items of expenditure. As with the transactions demand for money, it is positively correlated with real incomes and inflation. People often demand money as a  precaution  against an uncertain future. Unexpected expenses, such as medical or car repair bills, often require  immediat e payment. The need to have money available in such situations is referred to as the  precautionary motive  for demanding money * People need to be financially secure in the future, especially in financing or paying for unforeseen events. * Example: Money is used for emergency expenses such as hospitalization, accidents, contingency funds for unidentified household or business expenses. * Speculative Motives This is money not held for transaction purposes but in place of other financial assets, usually because they are expected to fall in price. * People want to earn the highest possible income from their different investments. Hence, they hold money to invest into assets or business prospects that have a promising steady flow of returns or income. * It depends on the decisions of households and firms to hold other assets that are liquid and free risks of depreciation in terms of money. * People hold money to make profits or avoid possible losses when the opportunity in the fina ncial market comes. Example: If the bank interest rate is low, the amount of money held for speculative purposes is higher while it is lower if the interest rate is high since the interest rate is the ‘opportunity cost’ of holding cash. QUANTITY THEORY OF MONEY (QTM) It states that the level of prices in the economy is dependent on the amount or level of money circulating in the economy. * The level of prices in the economy is basically the inflation rate. It is the rate at which prices are increasing. * Inflation – refers to the increase in the general level of prices and therefore is the result of too much money circulating in the economy.What would happen if there is an increase in the supply of or too much money circulating in the economy? * There is a possibility that every actor in the economy has so much money and it is natural for them to purchase goods or even services in the economy. An increase in the demand of goods and services without accompanying i ncrease in the available supply will cause the equilibrium price in the economy increase. This premise can be clearly explained if we discuss the quantity theory of money. The Quantity Theory of Money can be expressed by the equation: MV=PYWhere: M= quantity of money or money supply V= velocity of money P= price level Y= aggregate output * PY can be interpreted as the market value of output of the economy or the national income or the GNP. * PY refers to the total income or expenditure for the economy’s final goods. Since it is the value of all final goods and services produced in the economy. It is simply regarded as the nation’s GDP. * From the given equation, velocity of money or V can be expressed as the ration of GNP and money supply. Let us take a look at this equation: V=PYM= GNPM For instance, GNP is equal to P300 B while the amount of money supply in the economy is P50 B then the velocity of money is equal to 6. V= GNPM= 30050=6 * This means that a peso was us ed six times that year to purchase goods and services. * It also being interpreted as the speed of money per year in the circulation. * The QTM assumes that the velocity of money (V) and aggregate output (Y) are fixed, or at least for simplicity purposes, we assume that these factors do not change (or do not change much) MV=PY As a result of the assumptions we made, changes in prices level (or the inflation level in the economy) is directly proportional to changes in money supply * It means that a percentage increase in the money supply will cause an equal percentage increase in the price level or will lead to inflation. THE COMPONENTS OF THE MONETARY STOCK There is a wide range of financial assets in any economy. * Money in the economy is not confined to be circulating paper, bills and coins and the reserved money in the vaults of banks. * Money has many forms which comprises the monetary stock or the money supply in the economy.However, the question is, which part of these is call ed as or being considered as money? * The following table shows the classification of the monetary stock or the money supply. Definition of Money| Components| M1| Currency + Checking Deposits + traveler’s Check + other checkable deposits such as NOW and ATS| M2| M1 + Savings and Small Denomination Time Deposits + Money – Market Mutual Funds| M3| M2 + Large Denomination time Deposits + Repurchase Agreements| L| M3 + liquid assets such as securities (i. e. Treasury Bills), Bankers? Acceptances, Commercial Paper| M1 comprises claims that are liquid. This refers to claims that can be used directly, instantly, and without restrictions to make payments. It consists of items used as medium of exchange. * M2 includes in addition, claims that are not instantly liquid, those that may require notice to depository institution or banks. * M3 includes items that are held primarily by large corporations and wealthy individuals. * L consists of several liquid assets that are close sub stitutes for money. MAIN FEATURES OF THE COMPONENTS OF THE MONETARY STOCK Liquid Low interest earnings Less Liquid High interest earnings It should be noted that from M1 to L, the monetary stock is becoming liquid. M1 is directly used for transactions and L is less liquid and cannot be directly used for transactions purposes. * However, the trade-off is that if the individual hold more M1 than L, the individual is forgoing potential interest earnings from L. the L is being offered at a higher interest rate as compared to the M1. * In general, if you hold more M1, you are very liquid yet you earn little. On the other hand, if you hold more L, you find it very difficult to conduct day-to-day transactions yet you are earning much.Basic Concepts in Definitions * Currency * It refers to coins and bills (paper money) in circulation. * Checking Deposits * Accounts that grant a depositor the right to write checks to individuals, firms, or the government. This component is used in order to a void carrying large amount of money. * This particular component can be considered as money because checks are accepted as for of payments or exchange. * Traveler? s Check * It includes checks issued by non-banks such as American Express 8checks issued by banks are not checking deposits).It is usually used by travelers and tourists, since personal checks are not acceptable in other territories. Therefore, traveler? s check is generally accepted as payment in different territories. Negotiable Order of Withdrawals * A check is invented by thrift institutions as a way getting around the prohibitions of having checking accounts. It is almost same function as travelers check. * Automatic Transfers from Savings Accounts (ATS) * When deposit holders keep money in savings account, the bank automatically transfers from the savings account to the checking account when payment has to be made.This method is usually for bank to bank or institutional transactions. All commercial banks offer this service where savings account can be transferred to other forms of financial assets such as checks or current account (e. g. Land Bank ATS and Metro Bank ATS) * Savings Deposits * Deposits at banks that are not transferable by checks and are often recorded in a separate passbook or ATM (Automated Teller Machine) card kept by the depositor. * Time Deposits * These are the accounts in a bank which require certain maturity date. * Money Market Mutual Funds Interest-earning checkable deposits in financial intermediaries that raise funds by selling shares to individual savers and invest in short-term assets. In addition, these are built-in in all commercial banks such as the BPI Mutual Funds and PNB Mutual Funds * Repurchase Agreements * These are transactions in which bank borrows from a non-bank customer * The bank sells a security today and promise to buy it back at a fixed price tomorrow (that is why it is repurchase) * In that way, the bank gets to use the amount borrowed for a day * Liquid Assets These are assets that can be easily converted into cash such as stocks, cash on hand, cash in banks and accounts receivable- * Treasury Bills * Securities that are issued by the government that have certain maturity date. For instance, the Philippine Government treasury bills (such as the Centennial Treasury Bills). * Banker? s Acceptance * These are orders to pay specific amount at a specific time. This concept usually arises from future date and guaranteed by a bank that stamps it as accepted. * Commercial Paper * It refers to a liquid short term debt instrument issued by private corporations.

10 Terminologies of Philosophy Nemesis, Thumos, Physis, Nomos, Phronesis, Mimesis, Arête, Kairos, Aidos and Eupsychia

10 Terminologies of Philosophy Nemesis, Thumos, Physis, Nomos, Phronesis, Mimesis, Arà ªte, Kairos, Aidos and Eupsychia Introduction This paper identifies ten terminologies and gives a brief discussion on each of the ten terminologies. Most of the terminologies were used by ancient Greeks. The ten identified terminologies include nemesis, thumos, physis, nomos, phronesis, mimesis, arà ªte, kairos, aidos and eupsychia.Advertising We will write a custom coursework sample on 10 Terminologies of Philosophy: Nemesis, Thumos, Physis, Nomos, Phronesis, Mimesis, Arà ªte, Kairos, Aidos and Eupsychia specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Nemesis According to Aristotle, nemesis has the meaning of a feeling of throbbing at unwarranted good destiny. The term represents what is known as virtuous resentment which emerges from a sense of claim with regards to impartiality and desert. This is aroused in individuals by the thought of achievement without merit besides a consequential pleasure that arises from the punishment of the individual who is unjustifiably prosperous1 . Thumos Thumos can also be spelt as thymos. Thumos is an ancient Greek word used to denote the concept of spiritedness. For instance, it was used to portray a spirited argument or debate. Thumos was also used to indicate a physical relationship with either blood or breathe and also denoted an individual’s desire to be recognized. Plato, in his work known as Phaedrus and other works, described thumos as one of the prominent components of psyches. Plato stated that thumos was an emotional constituent of virtue. It influenced some of the feelings experienced by people; for instance, the feeling of fear and anger2. Physis The term physis is a Greek term used in relation to philosophy, theology and science. In English, the term was translated to mean nature. Physis was used as a synonym for the word natural. This stemmed from the etymology of the term physical. In more details, physis lexically connoted phyein; phyien was used to imply growth in ancient Greece. The Greeks gained knowledge of physis through introductory noetic and poetic knowledge of being3. Nomos Nomos is an ancient Greek’s philosophical model of law. The model became common during the late 5th century and early 4th century BC when the Greek Sophists were deeply concerned about the political authority on one hand and also that of the rights, freedom and specific obligation of citizens on the other hand.Advertising Looking for coursework on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Greek Sophists discerned between nature, otherwise philosophically known as physis and the convention, also known as nomos. Laws were placed under the nomos; this was because laws were generally regarded as emanating from human inventions achieved through consent for the reason of limiting the natural freedoms for the benefit of pragmatism and personal interests4. Phronesis Phronesis is an antique Geek term denoting wisdom. It was also used to refer to intelligence. Both wisdom and intelligence are terms commonly used in philosophy. According to a theory regarding Aristotle’s rhetoric, phronesis is one amongst the three kinds of appeal to an individual character. This is commonly referred to as ethos. Phronesis, as used, was more concerned with specifics because it influenced how an individual acted in a given situation. Aristotle emphasized that for one to be virtuous phronesis is both sufficient and necessary5. Mimesis Mimesis is a Greek terminology with a number of meanings attached to it. The term is both philosophical and critical; its meanings include mimicry, imitation and representation. Mimesis is an ancient Greece idea used to govern the creation of artistic works with connection to the material world which was understood to be a model for good, truth and beauty. Plato contrasted the term mimesis with diegesis. However, after Plato, mimesis had numerous other interpretations. Aristotle also had a n interpretation of what mimesis was. He wrote about mimesis as the exactness and simulation of nature6. Arete This is also a Greek word used by ancient Greeks to mean excellence of any sort. This meaning was tied to the concept of realization of a purpose or objective. It was used to describe the action taken by an individual to realize a full potential. In ancient culture of the Greeks, arà ªte was considered to be strength and audacity. In fact, the term arà ªte was used by ancient Greeks to mean something related to being the best one could be in the process of realizing the goals of life. Therefore, arà ªte could be interpreted to mean virtue used in achieving practical results7.Advertising We will write a custom coursework sample on 10 Terminologies of Philosophy: Nemesis, Thumos, Physis, Nomos, Phronesis, Mimesis, Arà ªte, Kairos, Aidos and Eupsychia specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Kairos Kairos is another ancient termino logy used in reference to an appropriate moment. The ancient Greeks used both chronos and kairos to refer to time. However, chromos was mostly used to refer to chronological time while kairos was used to refer to a time frame; a period of indefinite time in which an incredible thing happened. Comparing the two, chronos was quantitative in nature and kairos was qualitative. Besides, both modern and ancient Greek philosophers have used the term kairos to refer to weather8. Aidos Aidos is a term that was used to refer to the deity spirit of humility, respect and admiration. Aidos was a companion to a deity known as nemesis. As a form of quality, Aidos was a specific feeling of respect or disgrace which barred men from committing wrongs. Nemesis, as discussed earlier, represented righteous resentment awakened by the sight of the iniquitous living in unmerited good destiny. Aidos was seen by the ancient Greeks as a personification of humility. She was worshipped both by the Greeks and th e Romans9. Eupsychia Eupsychia is a Greek term that stemmed from the Greek roots eu implying good and psyche implying the soul. Given this, eupsychia means the good society. The term was used by the ancient Greeks to imply the society of good community members. Eupsychia was considered as a vision of utopian society. It was coined by Maslow to describe a community in which health, self actualization and balance of life are enhanced. Conclusion This paper identified and discussed ten terminologies. These terminologies include nemesis, thumos, physis, nomos, phronesis, mimesis, arà ªte, kairos, aidos and eupsychia. The terminologies were predominantly used by the ancient Greeks. Bibliography Burge, Ronna. Aristotles Dialogue with Socrates: On the Nicomachean Ethics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009.Advertising Looking for coursework on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Conklin, William. The Invisible Origins of Legal positivism: a Re-reading of a Tradition. New York: Springer, 2001. Garrison, Elise. Tears: Ethical and Dramatic Aspects of Suicide in Greek Tragedy. New York: BRILL, 1995. Gier, Nicholas. The Virtue of Nonviolence: from Gautama to Gandhi. New York: SUNY, 2004. Footnotes 1 Ronna Burger, Aristotles Dialogue with Socrates: On the Nicomachean Ethics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 140-153. 2 Ibid. 3 William Conklin, The invisible origins of legal positivism: a re-reading of a tradition (New York: Springer, 2001), 20-47. 4 Ibid. 5 Nicholas Gier, The virtue of nonviolence: from Gautama to Gandhi (New York: SUNY, 2004), 69-72. 6 Ivo Strecker and Stephen Tyler, Culture and rhetoric (London: Berghahn Books, 2009), 7-37. 7 Ibid. 8 Ibid. 9 Elise Garrison, Groaning tears: ethical and dramatic aspects of suicide in Greek tragedy (New York: BRILL, 1995), 68-73.

How to Save Money in College 12 Expert Tips

How to Save Money in College 12 Expert Tips SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips You probably already know that college costs can be pretty intimidating. If you’re on a budget when it comes to paying for your degree (and most people are), knowing how to save money in collegecan make a big difference. Here, I’ll talk a little bit about what college expenses you should be prepared forso that you have a better idea of what to expect. Then, I’ll discuss strategies for saving money before you get there, in addition to strategies for saving as a college student. Let’s get started! How Much Does College Even Cost? Before we get into strategies for how to save money in college, let’s talk a bit about what an undergraduate degreeactually costsfor students in the US. First, some key terms: Cost of Attendance (CoA) -Total amount of money it costs for an average student to attend a particular school for one year. This figure includes everything you could think of: tuition, room, board, transportation, books, personal expenses, etc. You could also call this a school’s â€Å"sticker price† - it’s what a student would pay if she didn’t get one dollar of financial aid.Keep in mind this is an average figure - if a student lives especially far from the school and pays more in transportation cost, for example, his CoA might be higher. Net Price - Total amount of money a student actually pays to attend a particular school for one year. This is what you actually pay out of pocket, after accounting for grants and scholarships.Put simply, Net Price = Cost of Attendance - (Grants Scholarships). This figure matters way more than a school’s CoA because it’s what you actually have to budget for. The lower your Net Price, the better off you’ll be. When students first start research on college expenses, they tend to look at the CoA, or the sticker price. This isn’t necessarily a bad place to start, but a more sophisticated way of looking at prospective schools is to consider your likely Net Price instead of the schools’ CoA. This information will be important when we get into cost-saving strategies. Facts and Figures Now that we’ve gotten that background info out of the way, we can talk about what the current college cost landscape looks like. All the prices in this section are sticker prices, or what costs that make up a school's CoA (so, not the average student's Net Price - don't freak out yet). The biggest expenses you’ll need to consider are tuition fees and room board. Average Tuition Fees For the 2014-2015 academic year, average tuition fee costs were†¦ $31,231 at private colleges $9,139 for state residents at public colleges $22,958 for out-of-state residents at public colleges Average Room Board For the 2014-2015 academic year, average room board costs were†¦ $,188 at private 4-year colleges $9,804 at public 4-year colleges You’ll have to account for some other minor expenses as well - these costs will depend on more variable factors. For more detailed information about expenses, check out our complete guide to college costs. These expenses can be really overwhelming for one year, never mindfor four. The good news is that there are a lot of things you can do to increase your available income and decrease your expenses, both before and during college. 4 Ways to Save Before You Get to College As with most things, saving for college is easier if yougive yourself more time to get started. The earlier you start budgeting for college expenses, the better. More time means more opportunities to tackle and plan for large expenses in your future. There are two main ways you can deal with these big costs: You can work on increasing your income/available cash You can work on decreasing your expenses Both strategies effectively do the same thing. In order to be most effective, you should concentrate on both increasing income and decreasing expenses.Here are the best ways to do that before you matriculate: Increase Your Income #1: Apply for Scholarships There are so many private scholarship programs available, from small local awards to huge national and even international competitions. Scholarships can be based on any number of criteria: financial need, academic merit, sports performance, volunteer work, ethnic background, professional interests, and more. Half the work is finding scholarships that would be a good fit for you. It’s great to apply for those well-known national scholarships (like the McDonald’s, Gates Millennium, and Coca-Cola awards), but they tend to be very competitive, so it’s smart to have backups in place. Look for local or state scholarships (like the Florida Bright Futures scholarship), or for scholarships that match your unique interests and background. Start by checking out our guides to scholarships for high school juniors and seniors. Do your own research by googling any important descriptors - like your location, interests, or sport of choice - + â€Å"scholarship.† #2: Get a High School Job This might be the most obvious way to increase your income before you leave for college. The tough part is figuring out whether a job is right for you - you don’t want to sacrifice your grades or extracurriculars, especially because high school jobs aren’t likely to pay very much. Learn more about figuring out whether getting a job learn more about whether a job might be a good fit for you (link out - should you get a job) If you work full-time during the summers, you can get both professional experience AND a more substantial paycheck to save up for college e.g. If you work full time at $9/hr for eight weeks, that comes to $2880 (before tax). That could cover your personal and textbook expenses for a whole year if you budget carefully Decrease Your Expenses #3: Apply to the Right Schools Different schools will be able to offer you different sized financial aid packages. If you’re strategic about where you apply to school, you’ll do yourself a favor by reducing your costs right off the bat. If you’re applying to public schools, you should focus on those located in your home state. Public school tuitions are often much higher for out-of-state residents. (There may be exceptions to this rule if you think you'd qualify for high amounts of merit aid). Know what schools offer the best aid, whether it’s need-based or merit-based. Even though a school’s sticker price might be high - private schools often have higher CoAs - you might end up with a better Net Price if the school has generous financial aid policies. The most important thing to remember is that CoA isn't very helpful when it comes to choosing cost-effective schools. What you should care about is your estimated Net Price at a particular school. Spend some time doing Net Price calculations (it’s easy - get more info in our article on college costs) to figure out which schools may offer you the best out-of-pocket price. #4: Focus on Your Grades and Test Scores One of the best ways to get a good Net Price is to get into a school that offers generous financial aid, as I mentioned above. So what types of schools give students the best Net Prices? Well, schools that offer generous financial aid are often well-ranked private schools (they tend to offer a lot of need-based aid), or private schools that are trying to attract more competitive students (they tend to offer a lot of merit-based aid). In-state public schools also tend to be affordable for state residents. If your grades and ACT/SAT scores wererelatively high for a particular school, chances are good that you would: Get accepted to the school Be offered need-based financial aid (if any was available) Qualify for merit-based aid (if any was available) You may also qualify for merit scholarships if you were recruitedfor a particular sport. You can see how you stack up to other applicants and calculate your chances for admission for almost any school. All you have to do is Google "PrepScholar [school name] admissions" for more information. 7 Ways to Save Money inCollege I do not recommend saving money by using a belt instead of a backpack. Once you get to college, you’ll have a lot on your plate - classes, friends, extracurricular activities, and more. Managing your finances and saving money should become a part of your daily routine if you want to be successful in the long run. These next strategies will help you manage your income and spending on a daily basis once you’re a student. While you’re reading, think of other ways you can increase your income and decrease your expenses. Increase Your Income #1: Keep Applying for Scholarships As you hone your academic and professional interests, you may be able to find scholarships or grants that are a good fit for yourgoals. You don’t have to be a high school student in order to qualify for many scholarships (the Tylenol scholarship is a good example of this). Check with your academic department and/or career center for more information about possible scholarship awards. Also, Google is your friend!Use both general and specific search terms to catch as many award options as possible (e.g. "healthcare scholarships" versus "dental school scholarships for women"). #2: Get a Job On Campus Campus jobs are great options for college students, especially for those who have work study awards. They’re often conveniently located, pay better than jobs available to high school students, offer better personal and professional connections, and align better with future career goals. If you work 15 hours/week at $10/hr for two 20-week semesters, you’d make $6,000 per year. You could obviously make way more than that if you work during summers or long breaks. For more information, check out or guide to on-campus jobs (coming soon). Decrease Your Expenses #3: Make (and Stick to) a Budget This approach might take some trial and error, but it's totally worth it in the end. Start by thinking - realistically - about how much money you spend each month in different categories (e.g. food, transportation, clothing, personal grooming, entertainment, etc.).Add all of these expenses to come up with a total amount. If this total amount is more than your expected monthly income, start cutting non-necessities from your budget. Read more about crafting a budget on a strict income. Ultimately, budgets only work if you adhere to them. You can manually tally the amount of money you spend each month, but that can get pretty tedious. Free money management tools like Mint can help streamline the process and help you be more successful in saving money. #4: Be Smart About Your Textbook Purchases The average student spends about $1,200 a year on textbooks- yikes. The good news isthere are a lot of things you can do to try to keep your textbook costs well below this average: Shop around - don’t just buy what’s available at your campus bookstore. Check prices on Amazon to see if it’s cheaper to order online. Buy your textbooks used, either from campus bookstores, online, or from a friend or classmate. Take advantage of textbook rentals if they’re offered at your school. Sell books back to the bookstore (or online via Amazon) if you won't be using them again. Alternatively, you can sell to classmates who need to take the class after you're done. Don’t buy books at all! See if they’re offered at the library, and if so, if it’ll be hard to get your hands on them(this can be the case if all your classmates have the same idea). If there’s too much competition for books at the library, it’s better to just buy or rent. #5: Look at Your Rooming Options Living on-campus can sometimes be more expensive than living off-campus, especially in areas where the average cost of living is pretty low. If it’s an option, consider looking at alternative housing options where you can split rent with a bunch of other students. Don’t forget to take other possible expense increases - like paying more for food and transportation- into account when calculating off-campus saving options. #6: Take Advantage of the Summer There are a lot of ways to use the summer months to your financial advantage. If you’re living off campus and are committed to paying rent through the summer (i.e. if you’ve signed a lease), you’ll want to make sure you take advantage of that housing: If you'll be staying somewhere else for the summer, try to find someone to sublet. Students taking summer courses often need short-term housing options. Alternatively, stay in your housing for the summer to take summer classes yourself. By earning extra credits, you can possibly graduate earlier. If you live on campus and have to figure out housing plans for the summer, look into programs that might give you subsidized or free room and board. Summer RA jobs might be a good place to start. #7: Seek Out Student Discounts On and around college campuses, restaurants and retail stores often offer small student discounts to college kids who have their IDs handy. A 10% discount is pretty standard - helpful, but not necessarily huge. You can also check out this list of national retailers and restaurants that offer special deals to college students. This tiponly works if you’re sticking to a budget, as outlined above. Discounts can sometimes entice people to spend money they wouldn't usually spend, so only seek out deals you would purchase anyways. Student discounts are great .. as long as you don't turn into this lady and buy everything you see on sale. Final Points Thinking about saving money over the course of four years is overwhelming, to say the least. Although it'll help to have the above strategies for how to save money in college - especially as you make big financial decisions - it's OKto take things one day at a time. To be honest, the big financial decisions are going to be the ones that affect your finances the most. If you make prudent decisions when it comes tochoosing your school, housing option, and food plans, it'll be much easier to budget for those day-to-day expenses. Finally, just because you're a college student on a limited budget doesn't mean you can't spend money on anything fun. As long as you don't go overboard (and you stick to a budget, asI mentioned earlier), it's OKto indulge in small treatslike a movie, a new sweater, or a night out with friends. Don't forget to budget for college experiences like these! What's Next? Making smart financial decisions before and during college is important when it comes to your financial future. If you want to be even more prepared to tackle your education expenses, check out our complete guide to paying for college - it'll cover some bigger points about how to budget for the next four years. If you anticipate that covering all your expenses will be an issue, you should read our post on how to get student loans. But don't take out any more loans than you have to - see if you can get scholarship awards to help with those costs! Start with our lists of the top scholarships for high school juniors and seniors. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Divine Law in Islam Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Divine Law in Islam - Research Paper Example Sunni is the largest Muslim sect in the world, accounting for approximately 70% of Muslims worldwide. Sunni has for major schools of Islamic law; Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hanbali (Central Intelligence Agency, 2009), (Pew Research Centre, October 2009). Sunni Islamic law traces its roots back to the late Umayyad period in the second Islamic century. In addition to the role of the Quran and hadith, the geographical variations influenced different doctrines (Ziadeh, 2010). The most widespread school of Sunni law is the Hanafi School, founded by Abu Hanifah and located at Kufa in Iraq. The legal doctrines of Abu Hanifah are relatively more liberal and display a unique sense of respect for personal freedom. He was the first to formulate rules concerning contracts based on the principle of freedom of contract (Ziadeh, 2010). This fact is reflected in the contracts of Salam and Murabahah. The former allows the immediate payment of the price of goods for future delivery, although the contract of sale stipulates the immediate exchange of an object and its price.  The most widespread school of Sunni law is the Hanafi School, founded by Abu Hanifah and located at Kufa in Iraq. The legal doctrines of Abu Hanifah are relatively more liberal and display a unique sense of respect for personal freedom. He was the first to formulate rules concerning contracts based on the principle of freedom of contract (Ziadeh, 2010). This fact is reflected in the contracts of S alam and Murabahah. The former allows the immediate payment of the price of goods for future delivery, although the contract of sale stipulates the immediate exchange of an object and its price; the latter allows a merchant to sell what he had bought at the original price plus a stipulated profit if usury is not involved.  

Inheritance - Howards End Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Inheritance - Howards End - Essay Example Margaret, Helen and Tibby the half-German Schlegel children represents the French bourgeoisie intellectuals who have so much in common with the real life group from Bloomsbury and the Basts who are couples belonging to lower-class. As the novel moves to later chapters, Schlegel sisters attempt to assist the poor Basts and try to stop Wilcoxes from being prejudiced. The novel begins with three letters written by Helen to her older sister Margaret whom she occasionally calls Meg. Helen is intending to visit the family of Wilcox whom they had met while on a journey in Germany at Howard End. The novel reveals how Helen and her sister are dismayed by the place, as what they saw was quite different with what they expected. The motto of the book is just inheritance and connection. For instance at one time through the novel, Forster asks, â€Å"Who will inherit England?† The purpose of this paper is to discuss how Forster has developed the theme of inheritance in the novel (Doll 1). T he marriage of Henry and Margaret who comes from different families in the novel portray how different world can be connected. For instance, Margaret unlike her sister Helen gets to know better of the Wilcox family through marriage. However, Margaret’s initial encounter with this new family happens to be dismaying and disastrous, though she begins to understand that most of the things that she like, such as culture and art would not exist not unless there is economic and social stability established by the Wilcoxes family. At some point through the novel, Forster reveals how marriage between Margaret and Henry almost ended when Henry Wilcox is not able to make valuable connection between his transgression sexuality with Jacky and Helen’s relationship with Leonard. This implies social challenges that England had to undergo during the early twentieth century (Bradshaw 248). In Howards End, inheritance of property is symbolically disheveled with family issues, social clas s, modernity and national identity. Family is at straggle over inheritance. The novel focuses on three families: the Wilcoxes, Schlegels and Basts. The Schlegels family is a mixture of German and English people. In this family there exists empathetic, rational and pragmatic Margaret (Emma Thompson), Helen (Helena Bonham Catter) who is so impulsive and straggles in the name of socialism, social responsibility and economic injustice, their younger brother, Tabby (Adrian Ross Magenty) and Aunt Juley (Prunella Scales). Helen proves are the pivot of the novel’s melodrama and the politics of gender associated with her, though Margaret proves to be the weightier character (Bradshaw 248). In the novel Forster notes that the Wilcoxes family are presented by people like Mrs. Wilcox, Ruth, a past specter and patriarchal Henry whom Helen describes as a man who cannot reconcile science with religion. He is too mean to an extent that he considers cutting down clerks salaries in order to ha ve comfort and become rich. Furthermore, the entire Wilcox’s family comprising Evie, Paul, Charles and Dolly who is Charles’s wife are portrayed as snobbish, unimaginative and obsessed with class propriety and property. In this case, the Wilcox is the representation of past England through Ruth. The lives of the two families Schlegels and Wilcoxes become entangled through Ruth Wilcox, a friend to Margaret, leaving Howard